A Brief History of India

Ancient civilisations and early empires

• 2500 BCE: The earliest civilisation in India, known as the Indus Valley Civilisation, flourishes in the western part of the Indian subcontinent. This civilisation is renowned for its advanced urban planning, with cities like Harappa and Mohenjo-daro featuring grid-pattern layouts, sophisticated drainage systems and standardised weights and measures. Key structures include the Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro and extensive craft production in pottery, metallurgy and seal-making.
• 1500 BCE: The Aryans migrate to India, bringing with them their language and cultural practices. They establish several small kingdoms in the northern part of the subcontinent, introducing the Sanskrit language, Vedic literature and the early foundations of the caste system. Their society shifts from urban centres to rural, agrarian communities, centred on fire rituals and sacrifices as documented in the Vedas and Upanishads.
• 321 BCE: Chandragupta Maurya establishes the Maurya Empire, which is known for its strong central government and extensive road network. Under Emperor Ashoka, the empire became famous for spreading Buddhism across the subcontinent through dhamma policies and the erection of rock edicts and pillars.
• 4th century CE: India is ruled by a series of dynasties, including the Gupta Empire, which is celebrated for its thriving arts, science, and philosophy. This period, often called the Golden Age of India, sees advances in mathematics, astronomy and metallurgy, the development of classical Sanskrit literature and the creation of renowned artworks like the Ajanta and Ellora cave paintings.

Medieval India

• 7th century: Islam is introduced to India by Arab traders, leading to significant cultural exchanges and the establishment of Muslim communities, particularly in coastal regions. This period sees the integration of Persian and Arabic influences in language, literature and architecture, along with the development of Sufi mystical traditions.
• 1526: The Mughal Empire is founded in 1526 by Babur, a Central Asian ruler who conquered parts of northern India after defeating Ibrahim Lodi at the Battle of Panipat. Babur, a descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan, overcame initial challenges through military prowess, strategic alliances and effective use of artillery. The Mughals were Muslim rulers who governed a predominantly Hindu population.
• 1556–1605: The empire reaches its height under the reign of Emperor Akbar, who is celebrated for his policies of religious tolerance and promotion of arts and culture. Akbar abolished the jizya tax on non-Muslims, introduced the concept of ‘Sulh-i-Kul’ (peace with all) and encouraged interfaith dialogues at the Ibadat Khana (House of Worship). The Mughal Empire is known for its grand architecture, including the Taj Mahal, the Red Fort and Humayun’s Tomb. The Mughals also introduced new technologies and industries to India, including paper-making, textiles and ceramics.
• 1608: The British East India Company arrives in India, establishing trading posts in several coastal cities, marking the beginning of British commercial and political interests in the region.
• 1658–1707: Under Aurangzeb, the Mughal Empire expands to its greatest territorial extent. His strict implementation of Sharia law, reimposition of the jizya tax and destruction of Hindu temples alienated non-Muslim subjects, leading to widespread rebellions. Aurangzeb’s military campaigns and religious policies strained the empire’s resources, contributing to its decline. The rise of regional powers such as the Marathas, Sikhs, Jats, and Rajputs further weakened the Mughal authority.

Colonial period

• 1857: The Mughal Empire era officially ends as the British East India Company takes control of India in the mid-19th century, following the Indian Rebellion of 1857.
• 1858: The British Empire takes control of India after the Sepoy Mutiny, also known as the Indian Rebellion of 1857. This was a significant uprising by Indian soldiers in the British East India Company’s army against the company’s rule, fuelled by various grievances, including religious insensitivity and harsh policies. In the aftermath of the rebellion, the British Crown takes direct control of India, making it a British colony.
• 1858–1947: During the British Raj, the British Crown appoints British administrators and a Governor-General or Viceroy to rule India. They maintain power through a policy of divide and rule, exploiting divisions between various communities, particularly along religious lines. This strategy fosters communal tension and weakens Indian unity, laying the groundwork for future conflicts.
• 1857: Indian nationalist movements begin to emerge, with leaders like Mohandas Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru advocating for independence from British rule. These movements gain momentum over the years, employing strategies ranging from moderate reforms to radical boycotts and civil disobedience.
• 1885–1920: The British respond to Indian nationalist movements with repression and occasional violence, exemplified by the Jallianwala Bagh massacre in 1919. British troops, under General Dyer, fire on an unarmed crowd in Amritsar, killing hundreds and wounding thousands. This atrocity galvanises Indian nationalist sentiment and international condemnation.
• 1939–1945: During World War II, Indian soldiers fight on behalf of the British Empire, but the war also heightens Indian nationalist sentiment and demands for self-rule. The economic strain of the war and the failure of the Cripps Mission to secure Indian cooperation further fuel the independence movement.

Independence and republic

• 1947: The British government passes the Indian Independence Act, which grants independence to India and Pakistan, ending the British Raj. The act, partitioning India and Pakistan, results in massive violence, displacement and demographic changes as millions migrate across the newly drawn borders. This leads to enduring communal tensions and a legacy of geopolitical rivalry between India and Pakistan.
• 1947: With India released from the British, Jawaharlal Nehru becomes the first Prime Minister of the newly independent nation.
• 1950: India adopts its constitution, becomes a republic and builds a path towards democratic socialism. Significant challenges, including religious tensions, widespread poverty and economic instability, mark the early years.
• 1951: India launches its first Five-Year Plan focusing on agricultural development and infrastructure projects like the Bhakra, Hirakud and Damodar Valley dams. This plan achieves notable success, with the economy growing and agricultural production increasing.
• 1962: The Sino-Indian War breaks out over border disputes along the McMahon Line and Aksai Chin regions. India suffers a significant military defeat, prompting a reassessment of its defence strategy.
• 1971: The Indo-Pakistani War begins amid the Bangladesh Liberation War. India’s military intervention leads to the defeat of Pakistani forces and the creation of Bangladesh as an independent country. This war results in a humanitarian crisis with millions of refugees.
• 1974: India’s first nuclear test, code-named ‘Smiling Buddha’, is conducted, resulting in international sanctions and global condemnation. This test establishes India as a nuclear power.
• 1984: Prime Minister Indira Gandhi is assassinated by her own Sikh bodyguards, leading to widespread anti-Sikh riots and significant political instability. Her son, Rajiv Gandhi, succeeds her as Prime Minister.

Modern India

• 1991: India implements economic liberalisation policies, leading to significant changes in foreign investment and economic growth. These policies include deregulation, trade liberalisation and privatisation. Note that there has been a more mixed approach in recent years, with increased protectionist policies.
• 1990–2008: India faces several major terrorist attacks, including the 1993 Mumbai bombings, the 2001 attack on the Indian Parliament and the 2008 Mumbai attacks.
• 2008–2014: India continues to make significant strides in space technology, information technology and renewable energy. Key achievements include the Mars Orbiter Mission and substantial solar and wind energy investments. Despite progress, the country faces ongoing challenges like poverty, unemployment and environmental degradation.
• 2010: India becomes a founding member of BRICS, marking its significant role in this international group focused on economic cooperation and development.
• 2014: Narendra Modi becomes Prime Minister of India. His government focuses on economic growth, infrastructure development, and improving India’s international standing through initiatives like Make in India and the implementation of the Goods and Services Tax (GST).
• 2019: Modi’s Bharatiya Janata Party wins a landslide victory in the general elections, securing a second term in office. The government continues its focus on economic reforms and infrastructure development.
• 2020–2021: India faces a severe crisis with record-breaking rates of Covid-19 infections, leading to more than half a million deaths and a devastating economic impact.
• 2023: India hosts the G20 Summit in New Delhi, marking a significant milestone in its global leadership role. The summit achieves the historic inclusion of the African Union as a permanent member of the G20, reflecting India’s growing influence in international affairs.
• 2023: India’s Chandrayaan-3 successfully lands on the lunar south pole, enhancing India’s status as a key player in space exploration and contributing valuable scientific data to the global community.